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- One-Child Policy Introduction
- Debate #1: Sustainability and Resource Availability
- Debate #2: Policy's Impact
- Looking Forward
China’s One-Child Policy & Forgotten Females
The one-child policy in China has heightened awareness regarding gender parity. One of the most pronounced criticisms of the policy is its impact on the demographic make-up of the population. Most notably, the introduction of the Chinese birth control policy in 1978 has caused many harmful outcomes for the female population. This paper will focus on the high sex ratios at birth in China and its ensuing effects.
In 2007, according to a recent United Nations Population Report, prenatal sex selection, abortion, female infanticide, and neglect caused at least 60 million girls to go “missing” in Asia. (Karabin 2007). While infanticide has been practiced historically in poor cities, after the one-child policy took effect, the wealthy cities started to see a rise in infanticide, something that was previously unheard of. Due to the introduction of amniocentesis, ultrasounds, and prenatal sex selection techniques, female infanticide has been less common than sex-selective abortion or feticide. The Chinese government has shown that the abortion rate is one of the highest in the world and continues to rise. In 2007, abortions were 7.6 million and increased to 9.2 million in just one year. State media outlets have also reported that abortions could be as high as 13 million, making China the country with the highest abortion rate in the world. (White, 2011).
In 2007, according to a recent United Nations Population Report, prenatal sex selection, abortion, female infanticide, and neglect caused at least 60 million girls to go “missing” in Asia. (Karabin 2007). While infanticide has been practiced historically in poor cities, after the one-child policy took effect, the wealthy cities started to see a rise in infanticide, something that was previously unheard of. Due to the introduction of amniocentesis, ultrasounds, and prenatal sex selection techniques, female infanticide has been less common than sex-selective abortion or feticide. The Chinese government has shown that the abortion rate is one of the highest in the world and continues to rise. In 2007, abortions were 7.6 million and increased to 9.2 million in just one year. State media outlets have also reported that abortions could be as high as 13 million, making China the country with the highest abortion rate in the world. (White, 2011).
The most significant effect of the policy has been on China’s sex ratio. The sex ratio at birth ranges from 1.03 to 1.07, boys to girls respectively, in industrialized countries. China has a grossly unequal ratio of about 114 males for every 100 females, a result that is highly attributable to the one child policy (Karabin, 2007). A fertility study by Sten Johansson and Ola Nygren (1991), suggested that about 500,000 girls were missing during the 1980s, half of which could be attributable to adoption. Underreporting of female births,
gender-specific abortion, and female infanticide are other explanations that account for the number of missing girls.
The desire for families to conceive a son has been deeply rooted in the Chinese tradition. With the one-child policy’s limitations, sex-selective abortions account for a large percentage of the male surplus. China is a highly patriarchal society and currently lacks a developed social security policy that adequately provides for
the aged population. Thus, it is no surprise that Chinese parents prefer to have a son, especially if the family is limited to only one child. The son-preference ideology is established from the belief that Chinese families
“must have a son to carry their family name, inherit family properties, support them in their old age and host their funeral ceremonies. Tradition says children belong to their father’s lineages, and daughters become part of their husband’s families” (Wetzstein, 2010). This causes couples to choose between their retirement
well-being and the lives of their daughters: a choice between a financial burden and guaranteed care when older.
Human trafficking is “an increasingly lucrative enterprise, one that generates an annual figure that the UN estimates is $8 to $10 billion” (PBS, 2003). Criminal groups, incentivized by this kind of capital, use human trafficking in illegal ventures, such as the sex trade and narcotic smuggling. These criminal groups consist of an illicit network of traffickers, pimps, recruiters, brothel owners, and johns who victimize vulnerable children and women and force them into a life of sexual commerce. These ventures can be small and local level or a highly organized group that functions on an international basis.
Traffickers move opportunistically to exploit vulnerable populations. According to the 2008 U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report, China remains “a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor.” About 10,000 to 20,000 victims are trafficked within China every year. Ninety percent of these victims are poor women and children who are often sent by their parents for a better life to wealthy regions in the east of China. Unfortunately, these victims are prone to violence and torture as they are predominately trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation (Tiefenbrun & Edwards, 2008).
Internal trafficking is widespread throughout China as women are abducted and taken to provinces far away from their homes and About 10,000 to 20,000 victims are trafficked within China every year. This is also a result of the imbalanced sex-ratio where men are desperately trying to find a woman for marriage and often have to resort to the purchase of a trafficked woman. The ratio of men to women has presented an increase in demand for wives coinciding with a decrease in the supply of eligible women. This scenario has caused an increase in prostitution and sex trafficking. A Human Rights NGO in China estimated the number of women sold as brides to be greater than 50,000. In a documented case, a mother of two children was drugged while travelling for work and eventually sold as a bride for $1,500 (PBS, 2003).
In order to conform to a strict government birth control policy in a culture that discriminates against women and has a strong preference for male children, women in China are bought and sold, murdered and
made to disappear. Trafficking of women in China is a severe international crime and human rights violations committed on Chinese women today. The One-Child Policy needs to be improved by focusing more on rational family planning rather than state coercion and punishments. In order to provide protection for women, cultural traditions that diminish this gender must be removed within the country with the encouragement of heavy enforcement of national and international trafficking laws.
gender-specific abortion, and female infanticide are other explanations that account for the number of missing girls.
The desire for families to conceive a son has been deeply rooted in the Chinese tradition. With the one-child policy’s limitations, sex-selective abortions account for a large percentage of the male surplus. China is a highly patriarchal society and currently lacks a developed social security policy that adequately provides for
the aged population. Thus, it is no surprise that Chinese parents prefer to have a son, especially if the family is limited to only one child. The son-preference ideology is established from the belief that Chinese families
“must have a son to carry their family name, inherit family properties, support them in their old age and host their funeral ceremonies. Tradition says children belong to their father’s lineages, and daughters become part of their husband’s families” (Wetzstein, 2010). This causes couples to choose between their retirement
well-being and the lives of their daughters: a choice between a financial burden and guaranteed care when older.
Human trafficking is “an increasingly lucrative enterprise, one that generates an annual figure that the UN estimates is $8 to $10 billion” (PBS, 2003). Criminal groups, incentivized by this kind of capital, use human trafficking in illegal ventures, such as the sex trade and narcotic smuggling. These criminal groups consist of an illicit network of traffickers, pimps, recruiters, brothel owners, and johns who victimize vulnerable children and women and force them into a life of sexual commerce. These ventures can be small and local level or a highly organized group that functions on an international basis.
Traffickers move opportunistically to exploit vulnerable populations. According to the 2008 U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report, China remains “a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor.” About 10,000 to 20,000 victims are trafficked within China every year. Ninety percent of these victims are poor women and children who are often sent by their parents for a better life to wealthy regions in the east of China. Unfortunately, these victims are prone to violence and torture as they are predominately trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation (Tiefenbrun & Edwards, 2008).
Internal trafficking is widespread throughout China as women are abducted and taken to provinces far away from their homes and About 10,000 to 20,000 victims are trafficked within China every year. This is also a result of the imbalanced sex-ratio where men are desperately trying to find a woman for marriage and often have to resort to the purchase of a trafficked woman. The ratio of men to women has presented an increase in demand for wives coinciding with a decrease in the supply of eligible women. This scenario has caused an increase in prostitution and sex trafficking. A Human Rights NGO in China estimated the number of women sold as brides to be greater than 50,000. In a documented case, a mother of two children was drugged while travelling for work and eventually sold as a bride for $1,500 (PBS, 2003).
In order to conform to a strict government birth control policy in a culture that discriminates against women and has a strong preference for male children, women in China are bought and sold, murdered and
made to disappear. Trafficking of women in China is a severe international crime and human rights violations committed on Chinese women today. The One-Child Policy needs to be improved by focusing more on rational family planning rather than state coercion and punishments. In order to provide protection for women, cultural traditions that diminish this gender must be removed within the country with the encouragement of heavy enforcement of national and international trafficking laws.
References
Johansson, S., & Nygren, O. (1991). The missing girls of china: A new demographic account. Population and Development Review, 17(1), 35-51.
Karabin, Sherry. (2007). Infanticide, Abortion Responsible for 60 Million Girls Missing in Asia.Fox News. Retrieved from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,281722,00.html
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (2003). Dying to Leave Human Trafficking Worldwide: China. Retrieved from: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/dying-to-leave/human-trafficking-worldwide/china/1451
Tiefenbrun, S. & Edwards, C. (2008). Gendercide and the Cultural Context of Sex Trafficking in China. The Berkeley Electronic Press Retrieved from: http://works.bepress.com/susan_tiefenbrun/2/
Karabin, Sherry. (2007). Infanticide, Abortion Responsible for 60 Million Girls Missing in Asia.Fox News. Retrieved from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,281722,00.html
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (2003). Dying to Leave Human Trafficking Worldwide: China. Retrieved from: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/dying-to-leave/human-trafficking-worldwide/china/1451
Tiefenbrun, S. & Edwards, C. (2008). Gendercide and the Cultural Context of Sex Trafficking in China. The Berkeley Electronic Press Retrieved from: http://works.bepress.com/susan_tiefenbrun/2/